Finally first piece of my assignment done
Assessment #2 -
Minor essay (Graded)
Question: To
what extent is globalisation a uniform and inevitable process?
In your essay you will need to acknowledge
debates and weigh up competing theories about the extent and nature of
globalisation. This should be done by recognizing and exploring global social
trends and illustrations of global phenomena, either by drawing on your
own personal experience or through detailing contemporary socio-political
events.
Introduction
Globalization is an inevitable process in the world
due to the process of liberalization as well as global integration across
diverse markets, from the perspective of labour to commodity and from services
to the advance technology. One of the largest problems of globalization is that
while market integrating the new commodity and services, the capital improves
at a fast pace; labour markets are radically not integrated. Robert Reich
(1991) raised the point that “Who we are?” and finalized the conclusion that
most production factors such as capital, technology, production plants and
capital goods, can be exported internationally, besides than the non-tradable
land, the merely true national factor is labour, that can only globalize in a
slow pace, in certain circumstances, never globalize at all. Thereby, the “we”
in Reich’s question refer to the labourers.
To what
extent is globalisation a uniform and inevitable process
In these days, globalization is one of most
controversial issues in the world, it can be explained as the increasing
development of economies, societies as well as civilizations. Unlike
internationalization, which means by the relations among nations, globalization
is an adjustment process that works across units and influence all perspectives
of human's life, it ranged from the flows of capitalization, through political
collaboration, to the flow of notions. Inevitably, it also includes
environmental pollution, criminal behaviour, illness, and eventually terrorism.
Most of the time, travel and tourism serve as the first causes and results of
globalization process.
Whereas globalization in tourism has attracted a
certain research interest, most researches have tended to centralize on
international hotel chains as well as airlines (Dunning and McQueen 1982a,
1982b; Johnson and Vanetti 2005; Rodriquez 2002, Williams, 1995). Nonetheless,
this had shown how insufficient the literature has discussed the in-depth
performance of globalization in tourism, and also how few the interest has been
used it in terms of theoretically (Bianchi 2002; Cornelissen 2005; Fayed and
Fletcher 2002; Knowles, Diamantis, and El-Mourhabi 2001, Smeral 1998, Wahab and
Cooper 2001). Despite both of the positive and negative impacts of
globalization are on the agenda at all stages of policy levels, there is a
widespread prediction that tourism is something exceptional, an industry where
global mechanisms and consequences do not involved. This is what two travel
agents in the Danish tourism industry remark:
Firstly, Jorgen Hansen (2005) claimed
that tourism cannot be outsourced. Thus, in an epoch with blooming
globalization, tourism is a very amazing industry. It is unclear that why politicians
do not widen their vision to see the benefits in the aspects of income and employment,
and acted accordingly with an effort to give impetus to tourism.
Secondly, Ulrik Bulow (2005)
proclaimed that it is an unchangeable fact that jobs created by tourism sector
are a promise to stay in the country. Besides than that, tourism also gives chances
for people in the labour market category who unable to get into technology
sector, particularly those whom struggle in reduced circumstances.
These two statements were eventually calls for an
increased concern on the service industries and also for increased the needs of
tourism marketing campaigns. However, the weak points in the literature show a
distinct importance of conceptualize globalization in tourism further and to
implement theoretical and evidence studies of its casual relationship,
direction, extent and impacts.
Roundtable:
"Globalization, Postsocialism, and the People's Republic of China"
The founder of Chinese post-socialist Li Xiao Jiang, London-based
scholar Lin Chun, sociologist Huang ping and a Chinese historian Barlow Tani (2001)
have discovered a similar statement in response to gender, feminist criticism,
globalization as well as post-socialism. When considering about what kind of
political events is worth to spend time reading it, and what sorts of lessons
can be speculated by our own personal experience. We usually take a glance at
the People’s Republic of China. Perhaps the concept that they are proposing is
a clear alternative to the increasingly conventionalized globalization debate.
Huang Ping centralized in how gender and generation influence the degraded
agriculture relations of production, his concept in class formation within the
massive national and international borderland which is impermanent or migrant
labour. From this perspective (the transmutation of labour from suburb to town
poverty), it is unclear that why globalization is a question, in the exclusion
that historical investigation as a question.
Chinese
Nation-Building and the Rethinking of Globalization and Education
Recently, in the globalization theories, it is
perceived that the governing institutions, discourses and cultural forms have
been revolving around the world all originated in the West. Meyer John and
Francisco Ramirez (2003), for instance, propose that a set of interconnected
global models of educational practice, it all based on Western origin, are
going to dominate the world. Theorists such as Mitchell Dean (1999, p.209-210)
explained the original concept of governmentality as 'the different ways that
governing is thought about contemporary society that can in enormous part be
traced to Western Europe in the old century'. Besides than that, it is
generally perceived that the era of nation-building in the West was earlier on
the current period of globalization - which the forms of standardization and
institutionalization began in the process between nineteenth and early
twentieth-century Western nation-building led to the formation of
standardization and institutionalization that have day by day spread around the
world since the mid-twentieth century and also, inversely, the power of what is
being globalized at this stage is so powerful that independent projects of
nation-building are not a big deal any more. In this sense, Saskia Sassen
(1006, p.16) debates that since 1980's, the 'building national states' has been
substituted by 'building global systems inside of national states' as the most
vital form of global conformation. The powerful forms of nation-building befall
in China today, yet, are beginning to affect the globe in the perspective that it
is unexplainable in the sense of globalization of Western practice. They lighten the foremost significance of
nation-building projects, at least in populous countries.
On the other hand, the latent effects of Chinese
nation-building on the rest of the world can be observed from many
perspectives. Karl Gerth (2010) disputes that purely due to the market scale,
the preferences of Chinese consumers are going to drive engineering and design
trends in industries particularly in automobile manufacturing, cosmetics as
well as chemical processing. Many have portrayed the impact of Chinese actors
in Third World countries, especially Africa, and argued the significant degree
that Chinese actions abroad imitate earlier Western colonists or demonstrate an
original and distinct development model. In addition, Chinese techniques of
administrating the social media may also spread more vastly as more and more
governments try to control what nations see as inappropriate speech in cyberspace,
these contents include child pornography, racism speech or any other random
political opposition.
The most
importantly, in education sector, the hidden influence of Chinese standards and
practices on the rest of the world is broad in the same vein. It has been some
time that Chinese language has been standardized in the People's republic of
China which is taught in Chinese language classes all around the globe.
Literally, mandarin language teaching is earnestly spread by the People's Republic
of China through the 'Confucian Institute', that according to its formal
website, had 691 institutional branches spread across 91 countries in October
2010. While studying in China, foreign students not merely improve their
Mandarin language skills, but also learn a diverse technical skills and nuances
of educational and social interaction. Besides than that, Chinese educational
practice also focus in extreme exam-oriented competition at Chinese schools. To
a significant degree, this educational culture influence educational practice
at other countries. As China becomes richer, more Chinese parents send their
children for abroad study since high school. They bring their exam-oriented
methods which learned in China; fully make used of it and thus often excel in
subject such as mathematical science, and subsequently this advantage may lead
to other students to compete their study habits. For this case, it always happen in Australia high
schools, where Chinese students dominate the academic positions in class despite
their lack of English language skill.
Basic
education reform in China: globalization with Chinese characteristics
Rather than merely
focusing in education, information technology is another aspect which allows
globalization to take place in the world, globalization has created a new
internationally economic, political, cultural as well as educational world
order. Luke and Carrington (2002) claimed that with the daily increased
capitalism around the globe which mainly led by the developed countries, the
globalization process has caused in homogeneity on one hand; diversity and
heterogeneity through crossbreeding on the other hand. Thus, this resulted a
"push-pull" effect, "mediated and refracted by local variation
and response" (Luke & Carrington, 2002, p.55; Ferguson, 1992), that
has considerable impacts to not only economically and politically; also
culturally and educationally for all nation-state or local community.
After more than thirty years of reform since 1978,
China has involved the globalization process with Chinese characteristics. As a
socialist country, for ages, ideological debates rose more than the differences
between socialism and capitalism. Nonetheless, in these days, China has
employed a globalized and market-oriented strategy to hits its economic
targets. For more than ten years, Xu (2009) mentioned that the globalized
market economy in China has keep it up as a fast-growing pace at a yearly
growth rate of about 10%. In this sense, Naughton (2000) added that the booming
economic growth is characterized by the increased numbers of industrialization,
privatization of means of production, labour commoditization, the increasing
numbers of a new wealthy class and many more. Liu (2005) argued that despite of
people's living more in materialistic life, the government and its cultural elites
recently publicized that these rapid changes have been comply at the expense of
extensive and serious environmental degradation in both suburb and town
regions; increasingly loss of arable land to the creation of industralization, enormous
gap between the rich and poor, and resulted many social problems and
educational injustice. Unfortunately, these issues brought about many
psychological and ideological difficulties for many Chinese nations and created
countless grudges towards the reform, globalization and the government (Liu,
2005). Hereupon, Chen (2004) pointed that the government and its cultural
elites started to dispute which what China needs to commit the most is not
hitting the economic target but also protect its environment, to secures social
and education justice to the nations for sake of build a peaceful society.
Conclusion
Last but not least, it is crucial for China educators
to understand what kind of educational issues are they facing in the
globalization process, and then find out the curricular and teaching method
dilemmas and problems of equity they are encountering in the aspect of the
global environment. This essay concluded several concepts which interrelated
with globalization - post-colonialism, process and development, Westernization
and Easternization particularly in China. Westernization is a concept defined as
being contiguous with globalization whereas Easternization is the opposite
concept which explains how its culture flows from East to the West. In contrast
to the any other flows, globalization consists of diverse direction flows with
no single particular point of an origin to another geographic region.
(1,854 words)
References list:
Barlow,
T. E. 2001, Globalization and Gender,
'The Politics of the Frame: An Introduction', Vol. 26, No.4, Chicago Journals,
The university of Chicago, pp.1273-1274
Bianchi,
R. 2002, Towards a New Political Economy
of Global Tourism, 'In Tourism and Development: Concepts and Issues',
Channel View, Clevendon, pp.265-299
Bulow,
U. 2005, 'Stages in the Economic Tourism', Pergamon, Science Park Aarhus,
Denmark.
Chen,
B.J. 2004, 'Weak, strong, authority power and social justice: Three tough
problems for future reform'
Cornelissen,
S. 2005, 'The Global Tourism System', Aldershot, Ashgate.
Dunning,
J., & M. McQUeen 1982a, The Eclectic
Theory of the Multinational Enterprise and the International hotel Industry,
'In New Theories of the Multinational Enterprise', London, Croom Helm,
pp.79-106
Dunning,
J., & M. McQUeen 1982b, Multinational
Corporations in the International Hotel Industry, Annals of Tourism
Research, , London, Croom Helm, Vol.9, pp.69-90
Fayed,
H., & Fletcher, J. 2002, Tourism
Economics, 'Globalization of Economic Activity Issues for Tourism',
p.207-230
Guillermo,
D. L. D. 2008, Winners and Losers in
Globalization, ‘What is Globalization’, Chapter 1, Blackwell Publishing
Ltd. Last viewed: 19/3/2015
George, R & Paul, D. 2014, 'Globalization: A Basic
Text', Second Edition, Wiley, pp.553. Viewed on 5/4/2015
Hansen,
J. 2005, 'Stages in the Economic Tourism', Pergamon, Science Park Aarhus,
Denmark.
Hjalager,
A. 2007, Annual Research of Tourism
Research, 'Stages in the Economic Globalization of Tourism', Vol.34, No.2,
Pergamon, Science Park Aarhus, Denmark, p,437-457, last viewed on 31/3/2015
Johnson,
C., &Yanetti, M. 2005, Locational Strategies of International Hotel Chains,
Annals of Tourism Research, vol.32, p.1077-1099
Karl,
G. 2010, As China Goes, 'So Goes the
World: how Chinese consumers are transforming everything', Hill & Wang, New
York.
Kipnis,
A. 2012, Policy Futures in Education,
'Chinese Nation-Building and the Rethinking of Globalization and Education',
Volume 10, No.1, SAGE journals, Anthropology department, College of Asia and
the Pacific, Australia National University, Canberra, Australia.
Knowles,
T., Diamantis, D. & El-Mourhabi, J. 2001, 'The Globalization of Tourism and
Hospitality: A strategic perspective', Continuum, London.
Liu,
J. 2005, 'On Social Justice', Beijing University
Educational Review, Vol. 48, No.1, pp.6–9.
Liu,
Y.B. 2005, Language and Education, 'The
discourse of pro-science and technology in Chinese language textbooks', Vol.
19, No.4, pp.304–320.
Liu,
Y. & Fang, Y. 2009, Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 'Basic education
reform in China: globalization with Chinese characteristics', Vol.29,
No.4, Routledge, Northeast Normal University and Nanyang Technological
University, China and Singapore, pp.407-412.
Viewed on 5/4/2015
Luke,
A., & Carrington, V. 2002, Globalization,
literacy and curriculum practice, 'Raising standards in literacy',
Routledge, London, pp. 213–250.
Meyer,
J. W. & Ramirez, F. O. 2003, The
World Institutionalization of Education, 'Discourse Formation in
Comparative Education', Peter Lang, New York, pp.111-132
Naughton,
B. 2000, 'The Chinese economy: Fifty years into transformation', Sharpe, New
York, pp. 11–49.
Rodriquez,
A. 2002, Tourism Management, ‘Determining the Entry Choice for
International Expansion, The case of the Spanish Hotel Industry’, vol.23.
pp.597-607
Saskia,
S 2006, 'Territory Authority Rights: from medieval to global assemblages'.
Princeton, Princeton University Press.
Smeral,
E. 1998, Tourism Management, 'The
Impact of Globalization on Small and Medium Enterprises: New Challenges for
Tourism Policies in European Countries', vol. 19, p.371-380
Wahab,
S. and Cooper, C. 2001, 'Tourism in the Age of Globalization', Routledge,
London.
Williams,
A. 2005, Capital and the Transnationalisation of Tourism, ‘In European
Toursim’.
Xu,
X.C. 2009, 'An analysis of the 30 years’ economic cycle and inflation circle in
China', Jiefang Ribao.
0 comments